You You can use a single theoretical model, supported by convincing empirical observations, to explain and realize the meaning and the relationship between motivation, emotion and behavior interpersonal? It would seem so by adopting the perspective of cognitive-evolutionary research on interpersonal motivational systems (MIS). This article wants to summarize the main findings based on the historical antecedents that have led to the development.
The story begins in the period from the '30s to the '50s of the twentieth century when many scholars are occupied independently of the negative impact on the psyche of children of a troubled relationship with the mother figure in terms of continuity, deprivation and / affective or appropriateness of care received, and at the same time, researchers from other areas came to overlapping data in studies of other animal species. This is the case for the latter, ethological studies of Konrad Lorenz on ' imprinting and the Harlow Primate particularly significant.
Harlow's experiments [more]
Early behavioral psychologists believed that the bond provides the child with his mother early in life depended on (was reinforced) by the fact that the mother would provide nourishment. The research carried out by Harlow in 1958 clearly suggest different conclusions. Harlow in his experiments of small monkeys separated from their mothers and replace them with two puppets surrogates: a warm and soft, provided food, the other di freddo metallo che dispensava latte. Le situazioni sperimentali realizzate mostrarono chiaramente che quando i cuccioli venivano spaventati o avevano bisogno di conforto si aggrappavano alla “mamma” di peluche, mentre quando avevano fame si nutrivano da quella di metallo. Risultò dunque evidente che il legame che il piccolo stabiliva con la madre fosse indipendente dal ricevere nutrimento e che, in altre parole, non potesse essere giustificato come un comportamento rinforzato dall'ottenimento di cibo.
Bowlby e l’Attaccamento
Gli studi di Harlow e quelli provenienti dall’etologia e dalla teoria evoluzionistica stimolarono lo psicoanalista John Bowlby a mettere developed in complete form a theory to explain the bond established between mother and child and more extensively sheds new light on the understanding of human motivation. From the perspective of Bowlby, widely supported by research data, the mother-child attachment bond is the result of a primary motivational system, bio-based and objective evolutionary adaptation separate from the satisfaction of physiological needs. Attachment is the result of a control system behavior that arises from innate p ropensione to seek the protective proximity of a member of their species, considered as able to provide care, when you feel vulnerable to the dangers. In humans, the attachment behaviors can be observed throughout the life cycle. Subsequent research, primarily conducted by its collaborator Mary Ainsworth, allowed to identify four types or styles of attachment that bind mother and child: Secure, Insecure-avoidant, insecure-ambivalent, disorganized. The styles shown are reflected in the construction of internal working models according to which children will build models of self and others based on its first interactive experiences. These models then guide the reading patterns of relationships in adult life may help explain possible psychopathological aspects.
motivational systems
The latest developments in evolutionary perspective in cognitive science have investigated further the scope of human motivation reaching significantly extend the findings of Bowlby. The attachment system becomes part of a broader architecture coming to be regarded as just a fact of Motivational Systems governing animal and human behavior.
motivational systems based on innate rules, selected by evolutionary processes. These trends, tendencies to act toward specific targets (different from the concept of instinct), invitations to pursue particular forms di interazione fra organismo e ambiente. Queste tendenze sono universali ed operano in tutti gli individui della specie anche se le loro espressioni concrete nel comportamento variano in funzione dell’esperienza del singolo individuo, particolarmente per l’uomo.
Ogni comportamento è dunque espressione di un confronto fra tendenze innate a perseguire determinate mete e le memorie di precedenti interazioni fra individuo e ambiente. Ogni comportamento contiene comunque un elemento motivazionale diretto a una meta tesa a realizzare un valore evoluzionistico di adattamento.
Ma quanti e quali Sistemi sìffatti sono stati individuati dalla ricerca?
L’organizzazione gerarchica dei sistemi motivazionali
Le conoscenze accumulate dall’evoluzione del cervello umano convergono nel delineare la validità di una visione evolutiva gerarchica organizzata su tre livelli (McLean, 1985), corrispondenti al cervello “rettiliano”, “antico-mammifero” o “limbico” e “neo-corticale”. L’architettura dei sistemi motivazionali segue questa tripartizione, aumentando la propria influenzabilità ambientale col salire di livello gerarchico.
Il livello evolutivamente più arcaico dell’organizzazione motivazionale è connesso all’attività neurale localizzata nel cervello “rettiliano” (Brainstem, basal ganglia). It consists of systems that regulate behavior that is not aimed at the social- regulation of physiological functions, the defense from danger, to ' exploration of the environment, to define and control a vital physical space ( territoriality ) , the obtaining of food , and sexual reproduction.
on these non-social systems are based those belonging to the most recent evolutionary history that control social interaction characteristic of mammals. This second level corresponds to the activity of neural networks in localized limbic brain including the amygdala and the cingulate gyrus. The ethological observation of social behavior present in various mammalian species revealed some universal approval: the call to identify the motivational system of separation ' attachment (or "demand for care), the soft body contact and repeated that of' caring (or "supply of care"), the rituals of courtship that of sexuality aimed at the formation of a pair , postures and facial challenge and made identifying the competitive ranking system (or "competitive" ), and in mammals more advanced, like primates, social play and attention back to the joint co-operative joint system.
the third level is the prerogative of the human species and located in the neo-cortex, concerns the cognitive dimension of 'intersubjectivity and construction of meanings, an emerging feature supersedes the other two systems and is responsible for the combination and individual variations of their expression, which is also a function of culture.
systems
interpersonal motivational systems belonging the second level of interpersonal motivational systems are known in humans (SMI). The SMI trends are therefore universal, biologically determined and selected on the basis of development, the expression of which has individual variability in behavior. They regulate the behavior according to specific goals and are closely related to emotional experience. The emotions accompanying the action of the SMI and in fact may be considered indicators of activity. With this in mind any specific emotional experience can be better understood if compared to the interpersonal motivational system within which it appears.
The attachment
The motivational system of attachment is aimed at obtaining help and close protection by another person identified as potentially suitable. The system is activated and takes control of emotions and behavior in situations of pain, danger, perceived vulnerability and loneliness continued. When on a range of emotions rule in the sequence typical warning: fear (separation), anger (to protest), sadness (for loss), and emotional detachment. The system is disabled from reaching the vicinity reported protective by emotional experiences of comfort, joy and security. The decommissioning of the system allows the activation of other records such as motivational exploration, the game (cooperative), sexuality as a couple.
The system of care
The system is reciprocal to that of attachment. Achieves the goal of offering care to a conspecific with the biological value of encouraging the possibilities of support of other individuals within their group. The system is activated by signals of demand for comfort and protection (separation call ) issued by another individual (in turn motivated the attachment system), or perception of its weakness / condition of difficulty. Emotions concomitant activation of the system are the anxious concern, compassion, tenderness protective or nurturing the blame for failure. The system disables the cessation of the activating conditions, then the perception of signs of relief and security from the other.
The sexual system (torque)
interpersonal sexual motivational system is designed to train and maintain the pair with the biological value of sexual reproduction and the maintenance of the offspring. The system is activated by physiological signals internal to the (hormonal changes, the most important animals and humans) and behavioral signs of courtship usually issued by another individual of the opposite sex. Emotions related to the activation of the system are the shame, fear of rejection and jealousy, the perception of approaching the goal instead is connected to the emotional experience of desire and erotic pleasure. Orgasm terminating episodic activation of the system, which can also be deactivated by the activation of SMI in other forms incompatible with sexuality. Inside the couple's sexual orientation can occur naturally the activation of other SMI (attachment-care, competitive, cooperative) and the consequent enrichment of form and quality of the relationship.
The competitive
The racing competition for the rank is aimed at defining the ranks of power and dominance / submission within a group to adjust the priority right of access to resources. Once the hierarchy within the group, it is still present and active over time, with the biological advantage of eliminating the necessity of fighting that could sfiancare individuals, until it is again called into question. The definition of the ranks is through ritualized forms in which aggression is not primarily intended to harm the opponent but to obtain from him a sign of surrender.
The competitive system is activated (a) by the perception that a resource is limited and more attractive to a member of the social group, (b) by signs of a challenge from a conspecific, (c) from human view, ridicule, scapegoating and other signs of rank. The decommissioning of the system is determined by the signal of surrender that imply recognition of their subordination to the winner. In humans, the system may disable the activation of another motivational system (eg. The cooperative).
emotions connected al sistema dipendono dal ruolo assunto (sottomissione o dominazione); legate alla resa sono la paura (da giudizio), seguita dalla vergogna e dalla umiliazione-tristezza da sconfitta e/o anche dall’invidia. I segnali di sfida sono accompagnati dalla collera che nel vincitore è seguita da sentimenti di superiorità e disprezzo per lo sconfitto. Il dominante tende a ricordare frequentemente ai subordinati la propria posizione attraverso due modalità: (1) la ripetizione di segnali di minaccia e dominanza (modalità più frequente nelle specie inferiori), (2) attraverso comportamenti di accudimento (soprattutto nelle specie superiori come i primati); ciò spiega perché, nell’uomo, ricevere accudimento non richiesto generi aggressività: il comportamento viene interpretato dal ricevente come un gesto aggressivo di dominazione.
Il sistema cooperativo paritetico
Il sistema ha come meta il conseguimento di un obiettivo comune, più facile da raggiungere attraverso un’azione congiunta. Il sistema è attivato appunto dalla percezione che risorse non limitate risultano più accessibili attraverso uno sforzo congiunto di più individui. Concorrono all’attivazione del sistema la percezione della valenza degli altri individui interagenti in funzione dei fini prefissati e la percezione da parte dei “pari” di segnali di non-minaccia agonistica (ad es.: sorriso). Il system can be disabled by objective, by the betrayal of loyalty cooperative by one or more interacting or even activation of other motivational systems in ways incompatible (eg, system or competitive system of attachment / caregiving). When the goal is having approached or reached the emotions related to the activation of the system relate to the joy of sharing, trust, friendship and love, guilt, mistrust and resentment instead indicate a breach by the system's own goals.
References:
Liotti G. Monticelli and F. (Ed.) (2008), the motivational systems in the clinical dialogue , Cortina.
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